This exhibit is for the person completing a dissertation, thesis, journal article or paper on African Americans with substance use disorders. Gratitude is given to historian William White, MA for his mayor contribution to this exhibit.

Marijuana in African American Communities Annotated Bibliography Completed by: Hendricks, L., Smith, D., Agenor, E., Myneni, J., February 23, 2026 Introduction This annotated bibliography provides historical and current references on marijuana use in African American communities which scholars, researchers, historians and policy makers can use to inform their work in understanding and addressing marijuana use in African American communities on micro and macro levels.

Marijuana in the African American Community

Annotated Bibliography

Foundational History, Culture, and Origins

1. Duvall, C. S. (2019). The African Roots of Marijuana. Duke University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478004530

Comprehensive historical account of cannabis in Africa and the African diaspora, essential for

understanding the plant’s cultural origins and early global trajectories.

Criminalization, Policy, and Racialized Enforcement

2. Sheehan, B. E., Grucza, R. A., & Plunk, A. D. (2021). “Association of Racial Disparity of

Cannabis Possession Arrests Among Adults and Youths With Statewide Cannabis Decriminalization and

Legalization.” JAMA Health Forum, 2(10), e213435. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamahealthforum.2021.3435

National evidence showing persistent Black–White disparities in cannabis arrest rates even after

policy reform.

3. Cross, H., & Sutter, J. (2023). “Colors of Cannabis in the U.S.: An Analysis of Race and

Marijuana Legalization.” SACAD: Scholarly Activities, 2023, Article

42. https://doi.org/10.58809/ABNS1917

Empirical analysis correlating state legalization status with racial demographic patterns in

arrests.

4. Jones, K. A., Agboh, D., Patten, M., & Chauhan, P. (2021). “An Examination of Racial

Disparities in Misdemeanor Marijuana Possession Arrests Following Reforms….” Journal of Drug Policy

Analysis, 14(1), 1–

23. https://doi.org/10.1515/jdpa-2021-0008

Multi-jurisdictional evidence of arrest disparities post-reform, highlighting racial enforcement

gaps.

5. Reid, A. E., Crump, M. E. S., & Singh, R. P. (2024). “Improving Black Entrepreneurship through

Cannabis-Related Education.” Education Sciences, 14(2),

135. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14020135

Focuses on educational strategies to support Black participation in cannabis industry equity.

6. McCarthy, S. D. S. (2025). “Pipe Dreams: Cannabis Legalization and the Persistence of Racial

Disparities in Jail Incarceration.” Journal of Criminal Justice, 94, 102230.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102230

Shows that legalization did not eliminate racial incarceration disparities, especially for Black

Americans.

7. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2024). “How Cannabis Policy

Influences Social and Health Equity.” Cannabis Policy Impacts Public Health and Health Equity.

Washington, DC: The National Academies

Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/27766

Structural racism framework for understanding why cannabis policy reforms have uneven racial

impacts.

8. Gunadi, C., & Shi, Y. (2022). “Cannabis Decriminalization and Racial Disparity in Arrests…”

Social Science & Medicine, 293,

114672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114672

Racial arrest data showing decriminalization reduces arrests but disparities persist.

9. Shih, R. A., Tucker, J. S., & Pedersen, E. R. (2021). “Density of Cannabis Outlets and

Racial/Ethnic Differences…” Journal of Cannabis Research, 3,

28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-021-00084-y

Investigates outlet density and racial differences, connecting enforcement to community

environments.

10. Jones, C. R., & Tonry, M. (2008). “Racial Disparities in Criminal Justice: Policies and

Patterns.” Crime and Justice, 37(1), 201–254. https://doi.org/10.1086/522360

Broader criminal justice disparities context in which marijuana enforcement fits.

11. Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New

Press.

This is seminal for contextualizing racialized drug policy in the U.S.

12. Beckett, K., & Herbert, S. (2009). “The Consequences and Costs of Marijuana Prohibition.” Law &

Policy, 31(2), 153–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2009.00306.x

Policy analysis demonstrating unintended impacts of prohibition on minority communities.

13. Musto, D. F. (1999). The American Disease: Origins of Narcotics Control. Oxford University

Press.

Classic historical treatment of drug policy origins, essential for early cannabis law context.

14. Pacula, R. L., & Smart, R. (2017). “Medical Marijuana and Policy.” Annual Review of Public

Health, 38, 79–99. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044527

Explains policy trends including racial justice motivations behind reform.

15. Pacula, R. L., et al. (2015). “Assessing the Effects of Medical Marijuana Laws on Marijuana

Use…” RAND Health Quarterly, 5(2), 12.

Policy evaluation relevant to racial dynamics.

Empirical Use Patterns & Health Outcomes

16. Assari, S., Mistry, R., & Caldwell, C. H. (2018). “Marijuana Use and Depressive Symptoms…”

Frontiers in Psychology, 9,

2135. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02135

Analyzes marijuana use, race, and mental health among African American adolescents.

17. Dogan, J. N., et al. (2021). “Cultural Race-Related Stress and Cannabis Use…” Psychology of

Addictive Behaviors, 35(3), 320–

325. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000694

Links race-related stress with cannabis use among incarcerated African American men.

18. Hasin, D. S., et al. (2015). “Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the U.S.” JAMA

Psychiatry, 72(12), 1235–1242. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1858

Foundational epidemiological data on use disorders relevant to racial comparisons.

19. Keyes, K. M., et al. (2016). “Evidence for U.S. Cannabis Use Trends by Race/Ethnicity…”

International Journal of Drug Policy, 36, 100–

107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.06.009

Describes trends among different racial groups over time.

20. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2020). National Survey on Drug Use

and Health: Racial/Ethnic Disparities.

Economic, Industry, and Social Equity

21. Doonan, S. M., Johnson, J. K., Firth, C., et al. (2022). “Racial Equity in Cannabis Policy…”

Cannabis, 5(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.26828/cannabis/2022.01.004

Shows limited diversity in senior roles in cannabis industry despite policy intentions.

22. Rolles, S., et al. (2020). “Economic Outcomes of Cannabis Legalization for Minority

Communities.” Journal of Drug Issues, 50(3), 353–

369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042620904298

23. Light, M. K., et al. (2020). “Market Concentration and License Equity in U.S. Cannabis.”

Journal of Cannabis Research, 2, 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42238-020-00019-x

24. Smart, R., & Pacula, R. L. (2019). “Early Evidence of the Impacts of Cannabis Legalization…”

Addiction, 114(5), 769–774. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14610

25. Kilmer, B. (2019). “Policy Designs for Cannabis Legalization: Starting with the Pot of Gold.”

International Journal of Drug Policy, 66, 1–

2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.02.004

Criminal Justice, Policing, and Enforcement Mechanisms

26. Gorodnichenko, Y., et al. (2021). “Policing, Race, and Marijuana

Enforcement.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 13(4), 141–

171. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20190641

27. Ridgeway, G., & MacDonald, J. (2019). “Contact and Consequences: A New Look at Racial

Disparities in Police Stops.” Journal of the American Statistical Association, 114(525), 1172–

1184. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.2018.1497776

28. Warren, P. Y., & Hollinger, R. C. (2025). “Race, Drugs, and Punishment: Cannabis Case Outcomes

in U.S. Courts.” Justice Quarterly (in press).

29. National Institute of Justice. (2022). “Racial Disparities in the Wake of Cannabis

Legalization.” NIJ Report 307696.

30. United States Sentencing Commission. (2017). Special Report: The Past Decade of Marijuana

Cases.

Social Determinants, Health Equity, and Public Health Impact

31. Pacula, R. L., et al. (2014). “Assessing the Public Health Impacts of Legalization.” Annual

Review of Public Health, 35, 203–

219. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182431

32. Schuermeyer, J., et al. (2014). “Trends in Cannabis Use Disorders by Race/Ethnicity…” Drug and

Alcohol Dependence, 134, 155–

164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.10.024

33. Hasin, D. S. (2018). “US Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Associated Problems.”

Neuropsychopharmacology, 43(10), 195–

212. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2017.198

34. Mason, M. J., et al. (2016). “Neighborhood Risk, Cannabis Use, and African American

Youth.” Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(5), 549–5

555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.12.016

35. Hayes, M. J., & Brown, L. J. (2023). “Cannabis Legalization and Public Health Equity.” Public

Health Reviews, 44,

1604785. https://doi.org/10.3389/phrs.2023.1604785

Policy Evaluation, Reform, and Equity Programs

36. Mikos, R. A. (2019). “Lessons from Marijuana Legalization in Colorado and Washington.”

University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 21, 1211–1254.

37. Kilmer, B., & Pacula, R. L. (2018). “Understanding and Learning from Cannabis Legalization

Countries.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 14, 201–

219. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-085428

38. Smart, R., et al. (2021). “Policy Design Patterns and Racial Equity Outcomes in Cannabis

Legalization.” International Journal of Drug Policy, 94,

103208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103208

39. Collective Impact Evaluation of Equity Programs in Legal Cannabis. (2025). Journal of Public

Policy & Marketing.

40. Legal Scholars’ Roundtable on Social Equity Licensing. (2023). Regulation & Governance.

Community, Identity, and Narrative Perspectives

41. Mason, W. A., et al. (2020). “Cultural Dimensions of Cannabis Use Among African American

Adults.” Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 19(3), 321–

339. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2020.1710470

42. Jones, C. M., et al. (2018). “Self-Reported Reasons for Cannabis Use Across Races.” Addictive

Behaviors, 76, 32–

39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.08.011

43. Taylor, R. J., et al. (2017). “Racial Differences in Drug Policy Perceptions.” Drug and Alcohol

Dependence, 173, 65–

73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.12.021

44. Craig, R. J., & Peck, J. (2019). “Media Framing of Marijuana and Race.” Communication Research

Reports, 36(2), 104–

113. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2019.1585382

45. Henne, K., & Troshynski, E. (2021). “Cannabis and Identity Politics.” Social Science Quarterly,

102(4), 1392–1407. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.13000

Comparative and Related Studies

46. Keyes, K. M., Schulenberg, J. E., & O’Malley, P. M. (2020). “Race/Ethnicity and Marijuana Use

Trends…” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 209,

107901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107901

47. Wallace, J. M., Jr., & Bachman, J. G. (1991). “Explaining Racial/ethnic Differences in

Adolescent Drug Use.” American Journal of Public Health, 81(3), 304–

309. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.81.3.304

48. Johnson, R. (2022). “Marijuana Legalization in Comparative Perspective.” International Journal

of Drug Policy, 102,

103624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2022.103624

49. Hughes, C. E., & Stevens, A. (2010). “What Can We Learn from the Portuguese Decriminalization

of Illicit Drugs?” British Journal of Criminology, 50(6), 999–1022.

https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azq038

50. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2024). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Drug Use and its

Consequences.

Marijuana in the Black Community (U.S.): Evidence-Based Timeline Table

Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness.

DOI: 10.1007/s12111-009-9103-4

Beckett, K., Nyrop, K., & Pfingst, L. (2006). Race, drugs, and policing. Criminology, 44(1),

105–137. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00044.x

Carstairs, C. (2006). Marijuana, race, and drug policy construction. Journal of Social History,

40(1), 137–160. DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2006.0159

Firth, C. L., et al. (2020). Marijuana legalization and racial disparities. Substance Use & Misuse,

55(10), 1582–1587. DOI: 10.1080/10826084.2020.1765803

Mitchell, O., & Caudy, M. S. (2015). Racial disparities in drug arrests. Justice Quarterly, 32(2),

288–313. DOI: 10.1080/07418825.2012.761721

Musto, D. F. (1999). The American disease: Origins of narcotic control.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195125092.001.0001

Provine, D. M. (2007). Unequal under law.

DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1029278 _______________________________________________________________________________________ 

Bibliography of Addiction Recovery Within African American Communities Collated by Mark Sanders and William White

Historical Perspectives

Cheagle, R. (1969). The colored temperance movement (Unpublished thesis).  Washington, DC:  Howard University, 1969. 

Christmon, K. (1995). Historical overview of alcohol in the African American community.  Journal of Black Studies, 25(3), 318-330.

Courtwright, D. (1983). The hidden epidemic:  Opiate addiction and cocaine use in the south, 1860-1920.  Journal of Southern History, 49, 57-72.

Crowley, J. (1997). Slaves to the bottle: Gough’s autobiography and Douglass’s narrative.  In Reynolds, D. and Rosenthal, D. (Eds.). The serpent in the cup: Temperance in American literature. Amerherst, MA: University of MA Press.

Glen C. (2017).  Heroes of early black AA.  South Bend, IN: Hindsfoot Foundation.

Green, W. (1995). Dysfunctional by design:  The rebirth of cultural survivors.  Evanston, IL: Chicago Spectrum Press. 

Herd, D.  (1985). We cannot stagger to freedom:  A history of Blacks and alcohol in American politics.  In L. Brill and C. Winick, The yearbook of substance use and abuse:  Volume III.  New York, NY:  Human Sciences Press, Inc. 

Katz, W. (1990). Breaking the chains:  African-American slave resistance.  New York, NY:  Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing Group.

Larkins, J.R. (1965).  Alcohol and the Negro:  Explosive issues.  Zebulon, NC:  Recod Publishing.

Pan, L. (1975). Alcohol in colonial Africa.  New Brunswick, NJ: Helsinki: The Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies. 

Sanders, M. (2002). The response of African American communities to addiction: An opportunity for treatment providers.  Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 3-4, 167-174.

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Williams, C. with Laird, R. (1992). No hiding place: Empowerment and recovery for troubled communities.  New York, NY: Harper San Francisco.

Williams, E.H. (1914). The Drug habit in the south.  Medical Record, 85, 247-249.

DRUGS AND MINORITY OPPRESSION

Recovery Autobiographies and Biographies

Douglass, F. (1855).  My bondage and my freedom.  New York, NY:  Miller, Orton, & Mulligan.

Key Scientific Studies and Professional Papers

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Alexander, K., Reed, M. K., & Sterling, R. C. (2023). The interaction of race and age in methadone treatment retention outcomes: A single-center analysis. J Subst Use Addict Treat, 148, 209020.

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Gibbons, F. X., Etcheverry, P. E., Stock, M. L., Gerrard, M., Weng, C. Y., Kiviniemi, M., & O'Hara, R. E. (2010). Exploring the link between racial discrimination and substance use: What mediates? What buffers? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99 (5), 785–801. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019880

Gilder, D. A., Lau, P., Corey, L., & Elders, C. L. (2008). Factors associated with remission from alcohol dependence in an American Indian community group. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(9), 1172-1178.

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Policy

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